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    How Sand Mining is Shaping the Trishuli River in the Himalayas of South Asia
    (Springer Int Publ Ag, 2025) Pant, Ramesh Raj; Varol, Memet; Phuyal, Sita; Bhattarai, Somy; Awasthi, Mahesh Prasad; Thakur, Tarun Kumar; El Afandi, Gamal
    The Trishuli River in Nepal plays a vital role in hydropower generation, irrigation, fishing, and recreational activities. However, human activities such as sand and aggregate extraction, as well as agricultural practices, have been found to have a detrimental impact on the river. A comprehensive study was performed to assess the influence of these activities and natural processes on the river's hydrochemistry and overall water quality. Water samples were collected from 42 sites along the river, and 17 physicochemical parameters were thoroughly analyzed. The findings revealed that activities such as sand mining and agriculture significantly contributed to the river's high turbidity levels, PO43-, and TSS. The study also indicated that the river was moderately polluted based on the average Nutrient Pollution Index value. Moreover, the Water Quality Index suggested poor water quality at upstream sites and very poor water quality at downstream and mining sites due to elevated levels of TSS, turbidity, PO43-, and NO3-. The assessment also concluded that the water from most sampling sites was suitable for irrigation based on the US salinity diagram and various irrigation indices. Additionally, the water was characterized as Ca-HCO3 dominant according to the Piper diagram, and the river's hydrochemistry was mainly influenced by rock weathering, as indicated by the Gibbs diagram. In summary, the study concluded that while the downstream region of the Trishuli River is not suitable for drinking water due to negative impacts from sand mining and agriculture, it is ideal for irrigation purposes.
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    Hydro-chemical characteristics of Biring and Tangting Rivers (Nepal) and evaluation of water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes
    (Academic Press Inc Elsevier Science, 2024) Basnet, Niru; Sitaula, Sagar; Bohara, Rupesh; Bhattarai, Somy; Rawal, Sabin; Uprety, Mahendra P.; Pant, Ramesh Raj
    Although river water is vital for drinking, irrigation and domestic needs, it faces threats from natural processes and human activities. Small and medium-sized rivers, especially in Nepal, remain understudied despite their vital importance in providing water to densely populated areas. This study evaluated the suitability for drinking and irrigation and the hydro-chemical characteristics of the Biring and Tangting rivers in Koshi province, Nepal. The results showed that turbidity, pH, EC, TDS, TH, NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- and NO3- values of all sampling sites in the Biring and Tangting rivers, except for the turbidity value of 10.39 NTU recorded in the PT9 site of the Tangting River, did not exceed maximum limit values set for drinking water. However, according to Water Quality Index results, the water of both rivers was in poor condition for drinking due to domestic wastewater discharges and cremation activities which caused high NH4+ levels. The major cations in both rivers were listed as Ca2+ > Na+ > K+ > Mg2+, while the major anions were listed as HCO3- > Cl- > SO42- > NO3-. Gibbs and Piper diagrams showed that geogenic weathering of carbonate rocks prevailing in the region affected the hydrochemistry in both rivers. Evaluation based on seven different irrigation indices and US salinity laboratory diagram revealed that the water of both rivers was suitable for irrigation despite some magnesium-related limitations.