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    Integrative Effects of Foliar Biostimulant Applications on Physiology, Nutrient Balance, and Kernel Composition of Almonds in Deficit Irrigated Orchards Under Semi-Arid Conditions
    (Springer, 2026) Karaat, Firat Ege; Kutsal, Ibrahim Kutalmis; Denizhan, Hasan; Karahan, Ramazan Bestami
    Abiotic challenges in semi-arid orchards, including high temperatures and water limitations, can disrupt almond physiology, nutrient balance, and kernel quality. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of different foliar-applied stress-regulating compounds in mitigating oxidative stress and improving physiological performance, nutrient balance, and kernel quality of almond (Prunus dulcis [Mill.] D.A. Webb) trees under semi-arid field conditions. This study evaluated the effects of foliar-applied proline, salicylic acid, a seaweed extract-based biostimulant, and vitamins, amino acids, proteins, betaines, and growth regulators enriched biostimulant on almond trees cultivated under contrasting semi-arid field conditions. Key physiological parameters (photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content, leaf temperature, malondialdehyde), leaf macronutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, K/Na ratio), and kernel morphometric and chemical traits (kernel size, kernel ratio, crude oil content, fatty acid profile) were assessed. The seaweed extract-based biostimulant provided the most consistent improvements, including reductions in leaf temperature, enhanced photosynthetic rate (up to +15%), increased leaf proline content, and improved kernel oil accumulation (+8.6%) with a more favorable fatty acid profile (higher oleic, lower linoleic acids). Salicylic acid notably improved K/Na ratio (up to 150.97), whereas proline reduced lipid peroxidation (-27% MDA), reflecting distinct mechanisms of action. Principal component analysis (PC1 + PC2: 75.2% variance) and correlation mapping highlighted strong associations between photosynthetic performance, proline metabolism, ionic balance, and kernel oil traits. These findings indicate that biostimulant-based interventions, particularly seaweed-derived formulations, can support integrated physiological resilience and kernel quality, offering practical solutions for almond production in semi-arid environments.