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    Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality of a Transboundary River in Nepal Using Hydro-Chemical, Chemometric, Health Risk and Index-Based Approaches
    (Springer Int Publ Ag, 2025) Pant, Ramesh Raj; Varol, Memet; Awasthi, Mahesh Prasad; Bohara, Rupesh; Paudel, Sudip; Nepal, Jharana; Chakrabortty, Rabin
    In this study, advanced hydro-chemical analysis, chemometric techniques, health risk assessment and various indices were used to comprehensively assess the water quality of Mahakali River, which is an essential water resource for Nepal and India. Most parameters measured in the water samples collected from 25 sites in the basin during the pre- and post-monsoon periods were found to be compliance with drinking water standards, except NH4+ and Fe. The Water Quality Index values classified both the main river and its tributary (Chameliya River) as unsuitable for drinking. Nutrient pollution was found to be more severe in the tributary, which is much more affected by anthropogenic activities than the main river. Hydro-chemical analysis showed that the dominant water type in the basin is Ca-HCO3, which is mainly controlled by rock weathering. Apart from the magnesium hazard index, other irrigation indices confirmed that the surface water of the study area is suitable for agriculture. Chemometric methods provided deeper insights into the water chemistry of the basin by revealing pollution sources and relationships between parameters. Health risk assessment revealed minimal adverse health effects for children and adults exposed to NO3-N, Fe and F-. This pioneering study not only provides a holistic evaluation of water quality in a Himalayan glacier-fed river system but also establishes an innovative framework for sustainable water management in climate-sensitive regions worldwide.
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    Hydro-chemical characteristics of Biring and Tangting Rivers (Nepal) and evaluation of water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes
    (Academic Press Inc Elsevier Science, 2024) Basnet, Niru; Sitaula, Sagar; Bohara, Rupesh; Bhattarai, Somy; Rawal, Sabin; Uprety, Mahendra P.; Pant, Ramesh Raj
    Although river water is vital for drinking, irrigation and domestic needs, it faces threats from natural processes and human activities. Small and medium-sized rivers, especially in Nepal, remain understudied despite their vital importance in providing water to densely populated areas. This study evaluated the suitability for drinking and irrigation and the hydro-chemical characteristics of the Biring and Tangting rivers in Koshi province, Nepal. The results showed that turbidity, pH, EC, TDS, TH, NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- and NO3- values of all sampling sites in the Biring and Tangting rivers, except for the turbidity value of 10.39 NTU recorded in the PT9 site of the Tangting River, did not exceed maximum limit values set for drinking water. However, according to Water Quality Index results, the water of both rivers was in poor condition for drinking due to domestic wastewater discharges and cremation activities which caused high NH4+ levels. The major cations in both rivers were listed as Ca2+ > Na+ > K+ > Mg2+, while the major anions were listed as HCO3- > Cl- > SO42- > NO3-. Gibbs and Piper diagrams showed that geogenic weathering of carbonate rocks prevailing in the region affected the hydrochemistry in both rivers. Evaluation based on seven different irrigation indices and US salinity laboratory diagram revealed that the water of both rivers was suitable for irrigation despite some magnesium-related limitations.