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    Comprehensive Assessment of Water Quality of a Transboundary River in Nepal Using Hydro-Chemical, Chemometric, Health Risk and Index-Based Approaches
    (Springer Int Publ Ag, 2025) Pant, Ramesh Raj; Varol, Memet; Awasthi, Mahesh Prasad; Bohara, Rupesh; Paudel, Sudip; Nepal, Jharana; Chakrabortty, Rabin
    In this study, advanced hydro-chemical analysis, chemometric techniques, health risk assessment and various indices were used to comprehensively assess the water quality of Mahakali River, which is an essential water resource for Nepal and India. Most parameters measured in the water samples collected from 25 sites in the basin during the pre- and post-monsoon periods were found to be compliance with drinking water standards, except NH4+ and Fe. The Water Quality Index values classified both the main river and its tributary (Chameliya River) as unsuitable for drinking. Nutrient pollution was found to be more severe in the tributary, which is much more affected by anthropogenic activities than the main river. Hydro-chemical analysis showed that the dominant water type in the basin is Ca-HCO3, which is mainly controlled by rock weathering. Apart from the magnesium hazard index, other irrigation indices confirmed that the surface water of the study area is suitable for agriculture. Chemometric methods provided deeper insights into the water chemistry of the basin by revealing pollution sources and relationships between parameters. Health risk assessment revealed minimal adverse health effects for children and adults exposed to NO3-N, Fe and F-. This pioneering study not only provides a holistic evaluation of water quality in a Himalayan glacier-fed river system but also establishes an innovative framework for sustainable water management in climate-sensitive regions worldwide.
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    How Sand Mining is Shaping the Trishuli River in the Himalayas of South Asia
    (Springer Int Publ Ag, 2025) Pant, Ramesh Raj; Varol, Memet; Phuyal, Sita; Bhattarai, Somy; Awasthi, Mahesh Prasad; Thakur, Tarun Kumar; El Afandi, Gamal
    The Trishuli River in Nepal plays a vital role in hydropower generation, irrigation, fishing, and recreational activities. However, human activities such as sand and aggregate extraction, as well as agricultural practices, have been found to have a detrimental impact on the river. A comprehensive study was performed to assess the influence of these activities and natural processes on the river's hydrochemistry and overall water quality. Water samples were collected from 42 sites along the river, and 17 physicochemical parameters were thoroughly analyzed. The findings revealed that activities such as sand mining and agriculture significantly contributed to the river's high turbidity levels, PO43-, and TSS. The study also indicated that the river was moderately polluted based on the average Nutrient Pollution Index value. Moreover, the Water Quality Index suggested poor water quality at upstream sites and very poor water quality at downstream and mining sites due to elevated levels of TSS, turbidity, PO43-, and NO3-. The assessment also concluded that the water from most sampling sites was suitable for irrigation based on the US salinity diagram and various irrigation indices. Additionally, the water was characterized as Ca-HCO3 dominant according to the Piper diagram, and the river's hydrochemistry was mainly influenced by rock weathering, as indicated by the Gibbs diagram. In summary, the study concluded that while the downstream region of the Trishuli River is not suitable for drinking water due to negative impacts from sand mining and agriculture, it is ideal for irrigation purposes.
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    Hydro-chemical characteristics of Biring and Tangting Rivers (Nepal) and evaluation of water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes
    (Academic Press Inc Elsevier Science, 2024) Basnet, Niru; Sitaula, Sagar; Bohara, Rupesh; Bhattarai, Somy; Rawal, Sabin; Uprety, Mahendra P.; Pant, Ramesh Raj
    Although river water is vital for drinking, irrigation and domestic needs, it faces threats from natural processes and human activities. Small and medium-sized rivers, especially in Nepal, remain understudied despite their vital importance in providing water to densely populated areas. This study evaluated the suitability for drinking and irrigation and the hydro-chemical characteristics of the Biring and Tangting rivers in Koshi province, Nepal. The results showed that turbidity, pH, EC, TDS, TH, NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- and NO3- values of all sampling sites in the Biring and Tangting rivers, except for the turbidity value of 10.39 NTU recorded in the PT9 site of the Tangting River, did not exceed maximum limit values set for drinking water. However, according to Water Quality Index results, the water of both rivers was in poor condition for drinking due to domestic wastewater discharges and cremation activities which caused high NH4+ levels. The major cations in both rivers were listed as Ca2+ > Na+ > K+ > Mg2+, while the major anions were listed as HCO3- > Cl- > SO42- > NO3-. Gibbs and Piper diagrams showed that geogenic weathering of carbonate rocks prevailing in the region affected the hydrochemistry in both rivers. Evaluation based on seven different irrigation indices and US salinity laboratory diagram revealed that the water of both rivers was suitable for irrigation despite some magnesium-related limitations.
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    Hydrochemical Assessment and Water Quality Evaluation of Syarpu Lake, Nepal: Implications for Sustainable Management
    (International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 2025) Kaphle, Chiranjivi; Pant, Ramesh Raj; Saqr, Ahmed M.; Kafle, Sushmita; Sharma, Motee Lal; Varol, Memet; Dhital, Yam Prasad
    Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide essential services, including water purification, biodiversity preservation, and climate regulation. However, these ecosystems are under increasing threats from pollution, climate change, and anthropogenic activities. Syarpu Lake, located in Rukum district, Karnali Province, Nepal is an important freshwater resource facing similar pressures, yet its hydrochemical properties and pollution dynamics remain insufficiently studied. This research aims to bridge the knowledge gaps by conducting a comprehensive assessment of the lake's water quality, hydrochemistry, and trophic patterns to inform sustainable management practices. Bathymetric mapping revealed a maximum depth of 6.5 m and an average depth of 3.59 m, indicating significant sediment accumulation and reduced catchment area due to human activities and natural processes. Hydrochemical analysis identified calcium (35.06 mg/L) and bicarbonate (87.15 mg/L) as the dominant ions, with rock weathering emerging as the primary source of ion contributions based on Piper and Gibbs plots. The Carlson Trophic State Index (CTSI) classified the lake as eutrophic, with a mean value of 69.86, highlighting a concerning trend toward anoxic conditions due to nutrient enrichment. Despite moderate pollution levels, the lake’s water was deemed suitable for irrigation, supported by sodium adsorption ratio (SAR < 2.25) and permeability index (PI: 23.92–38.05). These findings align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 6 (clean water and sanitation) and 15 (life on land), emphasizing the need for targeted conservation measures, such as sedimentation control, eco-friendly tourism management, and sustainable land-use practices, to protect Syarpu Lake’s ecological health and ensure its long-term viability as a vital freshwater resource in the Himalayas. Copyright © 2025 by the authors.
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    Multivariate and Geospatial Analysis of River Water Quality in the Andhi Khola Basin, Western Nepal
    (Springer Int Publ Ag, 2025) Rana, Rojan; Awasthi, Mahesh Prasad; Thapa, Shiva Kumar; Shahi, Asmita; Oli, Sarala; Pant, Ramesh Raj; Varol, Memet
    The Andhi Khola River is a vital freshwater system in Syangja District, Gandaki Province, Nepal, serving as a primary source for drinking water, irrigation, fishing, and various other livelihood activities for local communities. This research seeks to evaluate the river's hydrochemical composition, overall water quality, and its appropriateness for drinking and irrigation through the application of multivariate statistics, water quality indices, and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. To achieve this, 22 hydrochemical parameters were analyzed in river water samples from thirteen sites. The water quality was generally found to be good, with most measured parameters meeting the permissible limits of both the National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) and the World Health Organization (WHO). Hydrochemical facies classification using Piper and Durov diagrams showed that the river water is predominantly of the calcium-bicarbonate type, controlled mainly by carbonate mineral dissolution and precipitation processes, as supported by Gibbs and mixing plots. Water Quality Index (WQI) scores classified the water as excellent for drinking use across all sampling sites. Suitability for irrigation was evaluated using a set of standard indices such as Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Sodium Percentage (Na%), Magnesium Hazard (MH), Kelly's Ratio (KR) and Permeability Index (PI). All indicators suggested that the river water is generally suitable for agricultural use, with only slight limitations noted at isolated stations. Multivariate statistical analyses, including Spearman correlation and cluster analysis, were applied to identify major controlling factors and to classify spatial similarities among sampling points. Geospatial analysis through GIS further enabled visualization of spatial variability and highlighted zones potentially impacted by anthropogenic activities. Overall, the integration of hydrochemical data, statistical evaluation, and GIS-based spatial mapping provides a robust framework for monitoring and managing river water resources. The findings emphasize the importance of regular water quality monitoring and underscore the Andhi Khola River's critical role in supporting sustainable water use and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation).
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    Trace elements in fluvial sediments of the Gandaki River Basin, Central Himalaya, Nepal: distribution, sources, and risk assessment
    (Springer Heidelberg, 2025) Pant, Ramesh Raj; Zhang, Fan; Qaiser, Faizan Ur Rehman; Varol, Memet; Adhikari, Diwakar; Wang, Guanxing; Bishwakarma, Kiran
    Purpose Himalayan river basins are crucial for water and sediment transport, supporting millions of people and influencing ecological health. However, the distribution, sources, and contamination levels of trace elements (TEs) in these regions remain poorly understood. This study assesses the spatial distribution, contamination levels, and sources of TEs in fluvial sediments of the Gandaki River Basin (GRB), Central Himalayas, Nepal. Materials and methods A total of 75 sediment samples from riverbed (R0), floodplain (R1), and terrace (R2) were analyzed. TE concentrations were measured, and contamination levels were evaluated using indices such as pollution load index (PLI), geo-accumulation index (I-geo), and enrichment factor (E-f). Principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis were used to distinguish natural and anthropogenic sources of TEs. Results and discussion TE concentrations varied, following the order: Ti > Ba > Sr > Rb > Zn > Cr > V > Li > Y > Ni > Cu > Pb > As > Sc > Co > Cs > U > Mo > Tl > Cd. Moderate to high contamination was observed for Cr, Cu, and Mo, with 12% of samples exceeding TEC and PEC for As and Cr, indicating potential environmental risks. Higher TE levels on the leeward (U-) side were linked to weathering of metal-rich materials and long-range transport processes. Conclusions The study highlighted ecological risks from TE contamination in the GRB, stressing the need for pollution control, sustainable river basin management, and further research to mitigate environmental hazards.